This is a brief introduction to the shamanic world of Siberia, especially from the perspective of the Mongols. In spite of the linguistic differences there are overarching themes and images which appear among all forms of shamanism in Siberia. Indeed, the classic studies of shamanism have given special attention to the shamanism of Altaic peoples such as the Buryat, Mongols, and Tungus, creating an image of a "classic" Siberian shamanism.
Some of you may find that certain of the features of Mongolian shamanism which I describe may not completely be true in all its points for all Mongolian or Siberian groups. This is the result of the great geographic area which they occupy and differences in environment and tribal history which allowed for some variation from the observances or beliefs of their kindred. Many of you have some acquaintance with the beliefs of Native Americans, and how their relationship with the world shaped their beliefs and behavior. This is also true of Mongols and Siberian peoples in general. Reverence for mother earth and father heaven above as well as for all the spirits of animals and nature create a way of life which expresses respect for natural forces and abstains from harm to them whenever possible.
Mongols believe that the goal of life is to live tegsh, in balance with the world. One stands alone and in power at the center of the world, with infinite blue Father Heaven above and Mother Earth supporting and nurturing below. By living an upright and respectful life, a human being (hun) will keep his world in balance and maximize his personal power (windhorse, hiimori). Heaven and Earth and the spirits of nature and the ancestors supply every need and protect all humans. Shamans play an important role in restoring balance when it is thrown off by disaster or spirit interference.
Mongolian Cosmology
The universe of the Mongols can be visualized as a circle, not only in the three dimensions, but also in time itself. Everything has a circular motion, the path of the sun from day to day, the cycle of time from year to year, and the cycle of all living spirits as they return to the earth to live again and again. Intersecting the circle are the axes of the four direction and the axis of the center of the world going up to the upper world beyond the eternal heavens and going down beyond Mother Earth to the lower world. Superimposed on this is the image of the universe as seen through the vision of shamanic journeys, by which the shaman can climb the world tree or fly to the upper world, or travel down the spirit river to the entrance to the lower world in the north, or simply find a tunnel in the earth to travel below.
The Four Directions (Durvun Zug)
Awareness of the 4 directions is fundamental to the Mongolian view of the world. A few Mongolian friends have told me that if they are not aware of their orientation to the 4 directions at all times they feel ill at ease. The names for the 4 directions corresponds to the words for "front", "back", "left", and "right." In ancient times the "front" orientation of the Mongols’ world was to the east, but for some unknown reason it shifted to the south, as it is today.
The Mongolian world view looks from north to south. For this reason south is called the "front" direction. Correspondingly, north is called by the same word as "behind" in Mongolian. The right (western) side of the world is regarded as being male in essence, and the home of the benevolent sky spirits (tenger). The eastern, left, side of the world is regarded as female, and the sky spirits of that direction are believed to bring disease and discord.
The Ger and the Sacred Circle
The ger, known to a lot of Westerners as the yurt, is the traditional dwelling of the Mongols. It is constructed of a framework of poles (uni) radiating from a center smoke hole ring (tono), which is lashed on top of a circular latticework wall. It bears a very strong resemblance to the hooghan of the Navaho of the American Southwest. Also, many Siberian peoples, including the Tsatang and Urianhai Mongols, live in tepees. In all cases the orientation and symbolism of the ger is true for all Mongolian groups. Gers and tepees (uurts) are designed to be easily assembled or taken down as the nomadic travels of their owners requires, nevertheless, the imagery and meaning of the ger stays the same no matter where it is erected.
The ger is not only the center of the universe, but also a microcosm within it. In fact, it is a map of the universe at large, and the vault of the heavens is reflected in the arched shape of the interior of the ger roof. The entrance is always to face the south, since that is the front of the ger. The north side, called the hoimor, located behind the fire, is the most honorable spot in the ger. It is here that the sacred objects, ongon spirit dwellings and other religious images are placed on a table. The sitting place next to the hoimor is the most honored and is occupied by elders, chiefs, shamans, or other respected guests. The right, west, side is the male side, and is the sitting place for men and storage place for men’s tools, saddles, bows, and guns. The left, east, side is the sitting place for women, and cooking utensils, cradleboards, and other women’s objects are placed there. Since the southern side is the least honored spot, young people are usually seated on the southern part of the left and right sides.
Movement is "sunwise," in a clockwise direction. The reason why this is regarded as the path of the sun becomes readily apparent if one watches the track traced by the circular patch of sunlight entering through the smokehole through the day. Whenever moving inside the ger, one must always move in a sunwise direction. This same movement is also required in shamanic dances, worship, and ritual.
The center of the ger is the most sacred place of all, the gal golomt, the place of the fire. It is the dwelling place of the daughter of Father Heaven, Golomto, and is to be treated with the utmost respect. As the ger is the center of the world, so the place of the fire the center of the universe represented by the ger itself. The vertical axis represented by the column of smoke rising from the gal golomt also represents the World Tree which shamans ascend to the upper world, the smoke ring (tono) corresponds to the gateway to the upper world. In some shaman rituals, such as the initiation of shamans in Buryatia, a tree will actually be erected extending from beside the gal golomt to beyond the smokehole. As the shaman ascends the tree in his ecstatic state he describes his journey to the upper world. Also, even in the absence of the toroo tree, the shaman will still travel to other worlds after exiting through the smoke hole, often after his spirit has metamorphosed into a bird.
The ger, therefore, can be seen as a parallel to the Native American medicine wheel, a physical representation of the sacred circle with a definite orientation to the four directions and the universe at large. The circular pattern and alignment to the four directions is also retained in outdoor shamanist ceremonies, such as the walking and dancing around the sacred oboo cairns erected to mountain spirits or the yohor dance around a toroo tree by which the dancers raise a spiral of energy to carry the shaman to the heavens. Sunwise circular movement is also used in the dallaga blessing ceremony and in all types of dances by the shaman.
The Upper and Lower Worlds, and the World Center
Throughout Siberia as well as among many Native American groups people believe that there are three worlds laid upon one another in the universe. In some ways, ideas about the upper and lower worlds seem to imply a concept of parallel worlds rather than that of three worlds being literally stacked like layers on a cake. While the sky is believed to be infinite in depth, shamanists nevertheless insist that there is a doorway to go beyond the heavens. In the same way, while the earth is believed to be deep and solid, there are many passages which allow spirits and shamans to penetrate beyond to the lower world. Another aspect of the idea of the other two worlds is the fact that they are very similar to Earth in that they too have a sun, moon, forests, and humanlike inhabitants. The dwellers of the upper and lower worlds are invisible in our middle world, and people traveling from here to those worlds are likewise invisible. The presence of such intruders will be betrayed by a sudden crackle in the fire, barking by foxes, or by being visible to shamans.
The lower world is basically similar to this world except that its inhabitants have only one soul, rather than the three possessed by human beings. The ami soul, which causes breathing and warmth in the body, is lacking, so lower world dwellers are cold and have dark blood. Furthermore, some of the dwellers in the lower world are actually the suns souls of human beings awaiting reincarnation. The sun and moon are not as bright as in this world; the Samoyed say it is because the sun and moon of the lower world are actually half rather than full orbs. The lower world has forests, mountains, and settlements just like this world, and its inhabitants even have their own shamans.
The ruler of the lower world is Erleg Khan, son of Father Heaven. He has authority over the disposition of souls, when and where they will incarnate. Shamans often must appeal to him when recovering souls which have prematurely wandered away to the lower world before the body has died. Outside of these situations, people from the middle world rarely enter the realm of Erleg Khan except after death.
Travel to and from the lower world goes by many routes. One route is by way of the World River, which flows into the lower world, and its entrance is protected by Mongoldai Nagts, who prevents souls from entering the lower world before the body is truly dead. Nevertheless, sometimes souls slip through and must be retrieved before the illness caused by the soul’s absence causes permanent damage. Travel along the World River is very perilous and it is full of rapids. It is said that when a shaman falls dead during a lower world soul retrieval it is because the trip was too dangerous and his soul was lost. During his journey to the Lower World the shaman also may need to confront and placate Mongoldai Nagts and Erleg Khan and convince them to let the soul return. The lower world may also be entered through caves, whirlpools, springs, or one of the many tunnels through the earth which lower world beings use to travel up to this world.
The upper world, like the lower world, appears very similar to this world. The upper world, however, does not normally house the spirits of human beings, although shamans may travel there. It is brighter than this world, some legends say that it has seven suns. Descriptions of the upper world say that it resembles the earth, but nature in that world is still unspoiled and its inhabitants still live in the traditional ways of the ancestors. The ruler of the upper world is Ulgen, who is also a son of Father Heaven. Sometimes the brightness of the upper world will be revealed when the doorway between the worlds is opened. This will be seen as rays of sunlight shooting out from beyond the clouds, and prayers said when this occurs are especially powerful.
Travel to the upper world requires flight, and shamans often change themselves into birds in order to make the journey. They may also ride upon a flying deer or horse for the journey. The route may be straight upward, or toward the south, to the source of the world river. Some accounts of shaman initiations involve travel to the upper world and initiation by the spirits there before the shamans’ initiation in this world. Another way of travel to the upper world is climbing the toroo, Tree of the Universe, which is represented by a tree at shaman ceremonies. The shaman will climb the tree while in a state of ecstasy and his soul will at the same time ascend the actual toroo tree to the heavens. Yet another route is suggested by the Dagur Mongol word for shamans’ power dreams-soolong. In standard Mongolian solongo means rainbow, and the shaman may be traveling in his sleep over the rainbow to the upper world in order to retrieve the information he brings back from the dream.
Earlier in this chapter the ger was said to represent the center of the world. In reality, each person stands at the center of the world in his own consciousness. Shamans in doing their work also locate themselves in the center of the world during their rituals. Many different images are associated with the center of the world. The most familiar one is that of the place of the fire in the ger, which is the meeting point between the earth and the axis connecting the three worlds. The other is the toroo tree, which also creates an axis as well as a pole for ascent and descent. Siberian and Mongolian traditions locate the tree at the center of the world, but also in the south, where the upper and middle worlds touch. By the world tree, which some say "stands at the border of day and night", the world river enters the middle world from the its sources in the upper world. According to the traditions of the Altay, Bayan Ami, lord of the forest animals, will be encountered during the ascent of this tree and will grant the shaman geese to assist him on his journey to the upper world. The top of the toroo tree touches the sky by the pole star, the altan hadaas, the sky nail which holds up the heavens. The other image of the center of the world is the peak of Mount Sumber, the world mountain. The peak at the center of the world is close to the pole star, and its roots rest upon a turtle in the lower world.
Windhorse and Buyanhishig
Shamanism deals with personal power and bringing good fortune into one’s life. While every day brings an individual into contacts which intersect one’s personal world with others, the core issues of life lie within one’s personal universe. In this individual aspect of the cosmos, a person stands at the perfect center of the universe, supported by Mother Earth and enveloped in the clear blue vastness of Father Heaven. At the center one’s cosmic soul (suns) shines as a bright white star, and the body soul (ami) is a red point of light. One can fly freely within the vastness of space or travel upon the earth. Because each person has their own path, one is ultimately responsible for one’s actions.
Personal psychic power is called hii (wind), or hiimori, (windhorse). This force is housed within the chest and will vary in size according to how one uses and accumulates it. Very strong windhorse allows one to think clearly and analytically and see through deception. Windhorse is the power which allows shamans and other powerful people accomplish what needs to be done simply and easily. Use of one’s personal power toward harmful ends or to upset the balance of the universe depletes windhorse, which is one reason why truly evil people tend toward self-destructive behavior over time.
Windhorse can be increased by actions to restore balance in the universe and through religious practice. Simple everyday actions foster windhorse, such as offering drink to heaven, earth, and the ancestors, prayer, and veneration of the heaven, earth, and the spirits of the ancestors and nature. Sacred smoke from incense, sage, thyme, juniper, and other herbs can raise windhorse when done during shamanist worship. Sacrifices are another way to raise windhorse if done for specific purposes or at the traditional festivals.
A related concept to windhorse in buyanhishig, which is blessing from Heaven or the spirits. One can view buyanhishig as being almost like a bank account which can be increased or decreased according to one’s actions. A large accumulation of buyanhishig (also known as buyan for short) will result in good fortune, protection from harm, and happiness. One can also lose buyan by violating taboos, showing disrespect for the spirits or the ancestors, or by offending the spirits of nature by killing animals for no purpose. Personal filthiness also is harmful to buyan. Buyan is increased through acts of generosity such as giving food and drink to visitors and donating goods to needy people. Buyan, like windhorse, is also increased through living an upright (yostoi) life, religious acts, and sacrifices. Father Heaven and the spirits can also be called through the dallaga ritual, which literally beckons buyan into one’s life or into the community when done collectively. It is done by making a circular motion with the hands in a sunwise fashion accompanied by the words "hurai, hurai, hurai!"
By being conscious of windhorse and buyan one can walk one’s life path in power, safety, and with good fortune. This attitude toward life creates self-awareness in one’s actions and consciousness of how individual actions shape one’s own fate. The ideal person learns to live yostoi (following the customs), which means living respectfully and not violating the taboos against upsetting balance in the world.
The Natural World
The endless stretches of taiga forest, the immensity of the blue sky over the steppe, and the majesty of Lake Baikal and the Altai, Hangai, and Sayan Mountains inspired awe and wonder among the Altaic peoples of Siberia and Mongolia. Living off the land and depending on nature for their sustenance created respect for living creatures, even though they had to be killed for man’s survival. Waste was taboo, and an insult to Father Heaven and the spirits of nature. Human beings’ relationship with nature was seen as one of interdependence rather than one of exploitation, and this reverence for the natural world allowed for the survival of Siberian cultures for thousands of years on their land without degradation of their environment. This way of life is expressed well in the ideal of tegsh, living one’s life in balance with the world and preserving balance in nature and human society. Actually human culture and society are not seen as unique or different from that of other living things; rather, human society, even at its most complex, is still only an expression of natural processes. The mythology of Siberian peoples, especially the tales which parents tell their children to explain why things in nature are the way they are (uliger), show that animals and even trees think much the same way as human beings and may even appear as humans under certain circumstances. The forest, mountains, lakes, rivers, rocks, and trees all have their spirits and they need to be respected for their gifts to mankind in the form of foodstuffs and shelter.
Father Sky, Mother Earth, and Heavenly Objects
The core beings in the shamanist religion are Father Heaven (Tenger Etseg) and Mother Earth (Gazar Eej). In history Chinggis Khan (Genghis Khan), the unifier of the Mongolian nation, based his power on a mandate from Tenger himself, and headed all his declarations with the words "by the will of Eternal Blue Heaven." Father Heaven is worshiped for what he is, the timeless and infinite blue sky. He is not visualized as a person, although he is said to have at least two sons. Worship of Father Heaven and Mother Earth is almost universal in Siberia, and is found in North America as well.
The weather is seen as a direct manifestation of Tenger’s disposition. Tenger is the creator and sustainer of balance in the world, and the natural processes of weather and the circular motion of the seasons is sustained through him. Lightning is a sign of Tenger’s displeasure or an indication of a site of high spiritual powers. When a lightning strike is a sign of displeasure, a shamanist ritual and yohor dance are made around the site where the lightning hit in order to send it back up to Heaven. Objects struck by lightning or meteorites and ancient artifacts are called Tengeriin Us (Heaven’s hair). They contain a spirit (utha) which is a concentrated package of Heaven’s power. Lightning struck objects (nerjer uthatai) and meteorites (buumal uthatai) can be placed in milk or liquor to energize the liquid with the spirit of the object. Shamans drink this preparation to incorporate the power of the utha spirit. Another form of Tengeriin us is the bezoar stone, which is used in rainmaking magic.
No shamanist ritual starts without the invocation of Father Heaven, Mother Earth, and the ancestors. Everyday activities acknowledge Tenger’s presence and is integral to living one’s life aligned with the balance of the universe. When a new bottle of liquor is opened, the top portion of the contents is poured into a container, taken outside, and offered to Father Heaven, Mother Earth, and the ancestors. This ritual, called tsatsah, is a very crucial one in the religion of Mongolia and Siberia. Housewives also offer milk and tea in the same way, walking around the ger flicking the liquid three times in each of the four directions. Tenger’s role in determining fate is acknowledged in everyday speech in phrases such as Tengeriin boshig (Heaven’s will). Women are required to keep their kitchens and cooking utensils clean because to allow them to become dirty is an insult to Father Heaven. Prayers and offerings are made to Tenger on holidays and at times of sacrifices to the mountain spirits. There is also a special sacrifice to Father Heaven in times of emergency which is a private ritual. Rainmaking rituals directly address Tenger, and are held at oboo shrines dedicated to Tenger and the mountain spirits. Every human being has the right to appeal to Tenger directly for help; however when balance has been disrupted by calamity or the intrusion of a powerful spirit the shaman will use the power of his spirits to restore his patient’s connection with Tenger and state of balance with the universe.
The crown of the head has a small piece of Tenger residing in it; it is the point of connection between the individual standing in the center of his world and heaven above. This point receives energy from Tenger which flows down the center of the person’s soul sphere. This piece of Tenger in a person’s crown has a counterpart star in the heavens. The star shines brighter or dimmer according to the strength of the person’s windhorse. At death, the star goes out.
Mother Earth (Gazar Eej), like Father Heaven, is not visualized in human form, but for what she literally is, the earth from which we draw nurturance and nourishment. She is also called Itugen, and the names for shamans, especially female shamans, are variations on the name (yadgan, utgan, udagan, etc.). This implies that shamans, have a very strong association with the veneration of Mother Earth. Her daughter, Umai, is the womb goddess and caretaker of the body souls roosting in the World Tree. Umai is also known as Tenger Niannian, which comes from the Tungus word for "soil." Trees are a manifestation of Mother Earth’s power, and worship of Mother Earth may be done at trees which suitably reflect her power andbeauty. Mother Earth and her daughter Umai are appealed to for fertility. Another daughter of Mother Earth and Father Heaven, Golomto, the spirit of fire, is spoken of as begotten by flint and iron. Sitting beneath the smoke hole in the center of the earth, the sunlight falling upon it from above and being created by products of the earth, minerals and plant materials, fire is a re-enactment of the original union between heaven and earth. The light of the fire is a reminder of the light of Heaven, and its heat recalls the nurturing quality of Earth. Like trees, all human beings draw strength from the Mother Earth below as well as receiving the energy of Father Heaven through the crown of the head.
The sun and moon are the eyes of Tenger; they are also seen as two sisters, and their essences are fire and water. Their light represents the power of Tenger shining eternally upon the earth. The cycles of the sun and moon demonstrate the circularity of time and all other natural processes. For that reason, time is irrelevant from the standpoint of Siberian shamanism. Time circles around infinitely, so each point in time is in contact with every other. For that reason, time and distance have no meaning in shamanic rituals, and a shaman can be in direct contact with any time or location without moving. The center of the earth can be anywhere and in any time.
The amount of buyanhishig available from heaven seems to vary directly with the moon cycle; the most powerful days are at the times when the moon is new or full. The sun cycle, the solstices as well as the equinoxes, is coordinated with the moon cycle to set dates for festivals. For instance, the White Moon Festival which starts the year is held on the first new moon after the winter solstice, and the Red Round Festival is held on the full moon closest to the summer solstice.
Several other heavenly bodies are considered to have spiritual power. One is the planet Venus, Tsolmon, which can appear both in the morning or at night. It is often painted on shaman drums to invoke its power. Tsolmon is the sender of comets and meteors, which are called war arrows. The Big Dipper is called the Doloon Obgon (the Seven Old Men). Their position points out the location of the Pole Star (Altan Hadaas), which holds up the sky. The observation that the constellation rotates around the axis of the Pole Star through the year led to the creation of the has temdeg symbol, which superficially represents the swastika but actually represents the position of the Big Dipper in the four seasons. Interestingly, this symbol is not only found in Siberia but in several Native American cultures as well, which may indicate a very ancient origin. The Pleiades are revered as another group of powerful spirits, and it was also the place where the sky spirits of the western direction met to decide to send the eagle to the earth as the first shaman. During the White Moon festival fourteen incense sticks are kept lit, seven for the Seven Old Men, and seven for the Pleiades.
The Ancestors
The spirits of the ancestors are invoked in all rituals along with Father Heaven and Mother Earth. According to Siberian and Mongolian shamanist tradition the soul actually consists of multiple parts, usually three, each of which has a different fate after death. One sub-soul, known as the suld or unen fayenga, remains on earth perpetually as an ancestral spirit. Ancestral spirits remain in contact with their descendants and other relatives, usually as protectors and helpers. After several generations these spirits may not remain with their relatives’ households but will be available and ready to help when called. By that time they have become part of the group of ancestors invoked as deedes mini during prayer. Ancestral spirits, after ceasing to reside with their relatives, will usually find a residence in a natural place such as a rock, spring, or tree. They can be called by shamans as helper spirits during rituals and settled into an ongon spirit house.
Certain spirits are recognized as ancestors even though they are not necessarily ancestors in a literal sense. Mongols revere Blue Wolf and Red Deer as their distant ancestors, and the Buryat Mongols have a mythical ancestor named Buh Baabai Noyon (Prince Father Bull). The bear is regarded as an ancestor by many Siberian groups, in fact the Mongolian word for bear is actually a form of the word "father" (baabgai). Chinggis Khan (Genghis Khan) is regarded as a protector ancestor spirit of the Mongolian people and is worshiped both as a patron of the nation and a protector of marriage. The sacred place of Mongolian dwellings usually include pictures of Chinggis Khan and deceased relatives and any ongons which shamans may have created for the family’s use.
Tenger, Chotgor, and other Nature Spirits
There are many different types of spirits in the sky and in nature; some are very strong and cannot be mastered by shamans, others are relatively easy to control. No spirit should be disturbed or controlled unless for the purpose of restoring balance, and not for any frivolous purpose. Spirits are not greater or lesser than living things with bodies, only different in essence, and should be treated with the same respect as humans or animals. The strongest of the nature spirits are the sky spirits, tenger, who live at each of the four directions. The eastern and western tenger are associated with the black and white shamans in those Siberian tribes that make the. The western tenger are said to have created man, the dog, and all the food animals, while the eastern tenger created the eagle, the animals forbidden to eat, and the disease spirits. Because the world needs balance between good and bad in order to be stable, the eastern tenger are not necessarily considered evil. The greatest of the western tenger is Ulgen, son of Father Heaven and lord of the spirits of the upper world. The greatest of the eastern tenger is Erleg Khan, Ulgen’s brother and lord of the spirits of the lower world. Usan Khan, the lord of the water spirits, is invoked from the southern direction; Keiden, also known as Tatai Tenger, is invoked from the north, he is the controller of violent weather, lightning, and tornadoes. Tenger are very powerful and cannot be controlled, but they can be called for assistance during shamanist rituals. The sky is also home to the endur spirits, who are the suns souls of humans that have lived such outstanding lives that they do not return to the lower world. They are not as powerful as tenger, but live in clouds and cause
rain to fall.
The earth is home to a great variety of spirits, including chotgor, ozoor, ongon, burhan, and gazriin ezen spirits. Among many Siberian tribes these nature spirits are known collectively as the ayyy. Chotgor spirits, also known as kut or abaasy, are frequently the cause of disease, mental illness, or confusion. Some chotgor are the suns spirits of dead people who did not find their way to the lower world or came back from the lower world. In such cases a shaman simply needs to send them to their proper home. Other troublesome spirits have never been incarnated but simply exist in nature. After being mastered by a shaman they can become helper spirits. Ozoor, ongon, and burhan spirits are generally neutral in their effects on people, but may occasionally cause problems. Ozoor and ongon spirits are frequently the suld souls of ancestors that are freely ranging in nature. They are some of the most important helper spirits of shamans. A special type of ongon spirit, known as the utha, follows shaman lineages and becomes like an extra soul as well as guide for the shaman. It does not incarnate in a shaman’s body but is a carrier of the collective memories of all the shamans that it has been associated with in the past. An utha spirit may start out as a shaman ancestor but after the original shaman of the lineage dies it attaches itself to shamans-to-be, bringing on the initiatory vision. Burhan spirits are very strong, and usually cannot be mastered by a shaman but simply urged to leave a patient alone if it causes illness. Shamans with very strong spirit helpers may be able to gain control of a burhan; in such a case it is tamed into a less powerful ongon spirit.
Gazriin ezen are the master spirits of places on the earth, including mountains, bodies of water, rocks, trees, settlements, buildings, even countries. They sometimes come in conflict with ancestor spirits that want to inhabit the spots in nature that belong to them. Some funeral customs are directed at reconciling the suld spirit of the deceased and the gazriin ezen so that the ancestor spirit will be able to reside in nature peacefully.
Spirits of Animals, Totems, Animal Guides, and Hunting
The world of the forest and waters is the home of wild animals upon whom man relies to survive. Animals are called amitan, "having an ami soul", because like human beings they possess an ami body soul which provides the breath and warmth of the living body. Ami souls of animals usually reincarnate as newborn members of their species, so deer return as more deer, seals return as seals, or bears reincarnate as bears. Since they have souls animals are considered to have personalities, language, and even psychic abilities just like humans.
The master spirit of all the hunting animals is known as Bayan Ahaa (rich older brother). Hunters appeal to him for fortune in finding game. The highest ranking animals of the wild are the Siberian tiger, the snow leopard, and the bear. Buryat call the tiger Anda Bars (best friend tiger) and pray to him for good hunting. In much of Siberia the bear is seen as a master of the animals and revered as an ancestor. Many Siberian tribes have special ceremonies for honoring the bear after he is killed.
Because animals possess reincarnating souls, there are many rules regarding the killing of game so that their souls will not be offended. Otherwise, they may become angry and refuse to return to the tribal hunting grounds or tell other animal spirits to stay away. When a large animal is killed or a large fish is caught, the hunter or fisherman may cry over its death to appease the animal spirit. Hunters also apologize to animals when they are killed, saying that they needed to take the meat and hide for their survival. Domestic animals are also killed in a respectful manner. Heads are not chopped off because cutting the throat injures the ami soul. The head, throat, lungs, and heart, which is collectively called the zuld, is the residence of an animal’s ami and should be removed from the body as one piece. When an animal is killed for a sacrifice the hide and the zuld are hung up on poles pointing to heaven. After bears are eaten the skull or sometimes the whole skeleton is placed on a pole or platform in the forest.
This respect for animal spirits dictates certain rules for hunting. First, when entering the forest one should act reverent and not laugh, run or yell, but move gently and stealthily like an animal. Throwing sticks in the woods is an insult to Bayan Ahaa and the forest spirits and therefore taboo (nugeltei). Urinating or throwing rocks into bodies of water is likewise forbidden. Animals should never be killed except for food or fur, and it should be done in a quick and humane way. Game must be shared in the community and not hoarded, and the carcass must be butchered in a customary (yostoi) manner. Following these simple rules ensured the return of game and a good relationship with the animal spirits
Rivers, lakes, streams, and the ocean is the residence of the water animals as well as a passageway for spirits traveling between the worlds. The loon and goldeneye duck are considered to be special water birds. There is a legend among many Siberian peoples that in the very earliest time the earth was covered with water, and that the loon and goldeneye duck brought up mud from the bottom of the sea and piled it up until land appeared. The loon is a very special water bird because of its diving habits. Water is full of spirits and the loon above all other birds is believed to communicate with the souls in the water. The cry of the loon is frequently imitated in the songs of Mongolian and Siberian shamans. Among the fish the pike is considered powerful and images of this fish are used in shaman rituals from the Samoyed in the west to the Tungus in eastern Siberia.
Animals who appear in nature are sometimes shamans who take on animal forms while traveling in spirit to do their work. They may take the form of birds, mammals, reptiles or even fish. Some stories recount occasions where an animal has been killed by a hunter and a shaman falls dead while conducting a ritual because the animal had actually been his soul. Ancestor spirits or ordinary people’s souls may also occasionally take on animal form The Dagur Mongols say that the porcupine, snake, fox, weasel, spider, and pheasant are especially likely to be shamans who are soul traveling; most of these are not normally eaten.
Certain animals are considered to be totems or symbolic ancestors for tribes or clans. The most famous are Blue Wolf and Red Deer, the mythical ancestors of the Mongols. The Buryat also recognize a bull as their ancestor. Throughout Siberia the eagle is also looked at as a totemic ancestor, and in Mongolia the eagle is associated with the shaman tradition. Among the Yakut individual clans recognize a specific mammal or bird as its totem animal. The name of the animal is taboo and it is referred to in everyday speech by other names. In Mongolian the lack of a literal name for the bear is probably due to this custom because the bear is recognized as an ancestor by almost all Siberian peoples. In Mongolia the name of the wolf is also taboo among many groups.
Animal spirits are also guides and teachers for shamans. According to Yakut tradition, once a shaman has contacted his shaman spirit, it will introduce him to the power animal which will be his guide. This animal is called the "animal double," or "animal mother." From that time onward not only would the shaman be taught by the animal, but would also take on its form while traveling in spirit. As a shaman grows in power he will add to his collection of power animals. A shaman’s outfit normally has whole skins or pieces of fur from several different kinds of animals which are ongon spirit houses for the power animals to which they belong.
Sacred Mountains and Trees
Mountains, stream, forest, and individual rocks and trees are all part of Mother Earth, but are also the home of gazriin ezen, nature spirits. Some if not all of them were once souls of human beings, ancestors from so long ago that their numerous descendants no longer remember them and the spirit no longer has any connection with them. Looking back on the hundreds of thousands of years of human history it is easy to imagine how many of these spirits exist out in nature. A mountain or tree of great majesty will be said to have suld, which is the same word that is used to refer to the soul which remains in nature after death. Unusual rocks or trees are believed to have a strong spirit and are respected or given offerings of tobacco or liquor. Because these spirits are found throughout nature it is considered very taboo to offend them by needlessly damaging natural features or mutilating trees. An angry nature spirit is very powerful and can create a lot of problems for a person or community until a shaman can placate or control it.
Mountain spirits are considered to be very powerful, and are prayed to provide good hunting and abundance of natural food plants. These ceremonies are usually held roughly around the times of the equinoxes and solstices and are usually done by the elders of the local clan or tribe. Mountain spirits and other powerful gazriin ezen are worshiped at special shrines called oboo, which are tall piles of rocks and tree branches roughly conical in diameter, about 6-10 feet tall. When passing by an oboo travelers are required to walk around it three times and place a rock on it. In doing this not only is a person showing respect for the spirit, which would be the least required of him, but by adding to the spirit’s power symbolically by adding the rock he is receiving windhorse and good luck for his journey. Oboo are also the sites of several ceremonies during the year which nearby families or clans would celebrate in honor of the local spirit as well as Father Heaven and Mother Earth and other shamanist spirits. Oboos not only represent mountains, but by their upward pointing nature they also represent a point of closer contact between heaven and earth, just as a mountaintop is considered to be closer to Tenger and therefore spiritually powerful.
The Spirit World
In the world view of Mongolian shamanism the spirit world is not seen as much different from the physical world except that spirits have a different essence; in fact, the separation of the natural and spirit worlds is rather arbitrary since spirits are in everything everywhere. Spirits have different properties from beings with physical bodies, they can fly and travel anywhere with tremendous speed and see and sense things over great distances or in the past or future. What Westerners call telepathy or psychic abilities is merely the talent to sense things using the abilities of the spirits which inhabit human beings. People with strong windhorse are especially capable of psychic powers because windhorse raises one’s psychic energy. Shamans routinely take on qualities of spirits during their rituals, being able to fly freely to other places or sense things far away or in spirit form through the aid of their utha and other helpers..
A Multiplicity of Souls, their Form and Function
All humans and animals possess more than one soul; multiple souls are required in order to inhabit a physical body. Throughout Siberia and Mongolia it is believed that all humans possess at least three souls; some groups such as the Samoyed believe there are more, four in women and five in men. Animals also possess two souls, the ami body soul and the suns soul, both of which reincarnate. For this reason, the game animals possess souls which return again and again to their habitat and must therefore not be offended. Human beings possess the following three souls (for simplicity I give only the Mongolian names):
* The suld soul, which resides in nature after death
* The ami body soul, which reincarnates
* The suns soul, which also reincarnates
The three souls reside in the field of energy that envelops the physical body. Of the three, the one most vital to life is the suld, if it is separated from the body death is practically inevitable. The other two souls may be separated temporarily from the physical body without harm. A living being occupies a spherical field of energy. This sphere has an upright axis within it, pierced by seven holes that correspond to the seven chakras. The suld soul resides at the crown of the head, where there is a direct connection to Father Heaven through the small tenger that is also located there. The other two souls oscillate back and forth through the holes of the body axis in a sine wave pattern. In order to be perfectly balanced, the suns and ami souls should always be on opposite sides of the axis. When a person become excited, the circulation of the souls through the seven holes speeds up, causing the heart to beat faster and creating a feeling of high energy or tension. The balance of the suns and ami souls can be thrown off balance by spiritual attack or physical trauma. In the most serious the ami or suns may get knocked out of the body and if this continues for a long time it will result in illness or mental confusion. In cases of soul imbalance or loss a shaman’s help is needed to restore order. The strength of the souls is proportional to the amount of hiimori (windhorse) a person possesses. Human awareness (setgel) is centered around the chest area and while the brain is recognized as being important to bodily function, the ultimate seat of consciousness is in the chest.
The suld is the most individualized of the three human souls. It lives in a physical body only once, then takes residence in nature. After death it remains around the body for a while and some groups create ongon spirit houses for these souls in order to keep them near and have their aid and protection. After eight or so generations the suld will become a nature spirit. The suld carries no past life experiences so it develops the characteristics that distinguishes a person from other people. Charisma and dignity are evidence of a strong suld soul; for that reason suld is also used to describe the majesty of mountains or trees.
The ami is the soul that enlivens the body. It is related to the ability to breathe, amisgal. It returns after death to the World Tree, where it roosts in its branches between heaven and earth in the form of a bird. Ami souls tend to reincarnate among their relatives. They are under the care of the womb goddess Umai, who dispatches them on spirit horses, omisi murin, to enter the body at the time of birth. While the ami may be temporarily displaced during illness, the ami does not leave permanently until after death.
The suns soul, like the suld soul, contributes to the formation of a person’s personality, but carries the collected experiences of past lives within it. The suns is an inhabitant of the lower world between incarnations but may return as a ghost to visit friends or relatives. Erleg Khan, ruler of the lower world, is responsible for the disposition of the suns, and determines when and where it reincarnates. If a soul was extremely evil during its life on earth he may send it to Ela Guren, a part of the lower world where souls are extinguished forever. The suns may also temporarily leave the body and sometimes wander as far as the lower world, which may require a shaman to negotiate with Erleg Khan for its return.
The triad of souls which comprises human beings can be seen as a combination of essences from all three worlds. The suld is the most closely tied to this world because it lives no place else. The ami lives on the World Tree and is practically a being of the upper world. The suns is definitely a part of the lower world. The need for multiple souls in order to be a visible physical entity implies that a physical living being represents an intersection of spirits from more than one of the three worlds.
The Siberian Circle of Life and the Water Cycle
While the ami soul is related to breath, the suns soul is tied to water. Waterways are passages for travel for the suns souls, especially the World River which enters the middle world by the World Tree in the south then flows into the lower world in the north. Of course this belief would seem natural because the great waterways of North Asia all feed into the Arctic Ocean Like the constantly renewing flow of water in these great rivers, suns souls return to the earth again and again. A model has been developed out of the various myths explaining this process which exist throughout Siberia. According to this model, souls enter the world through the source of the World River by the World Tree, where Umai stands watch over the ami souls. At the time of birth, the reincarnating souls come down the river and enter the infant at the time of birth. At death, the suns travels down the river to the Arctic Ocean and the entrance to the lower world while the ami takes the form of a bird and flies back to the World Tree. In order to return to this world the suns will either travel underground to the World River’s source or travel along the Milky Way to the lands in the south where the upper and middle worlds touch.
This cycle of life presents an interesting parallel to the water cycle, which generations of native peoples could not have failed to understand to some degree. Water falls on the earth as rain and flows from the ground at springs (springs are considered a gateway to the lower world). It flows ultimately into the ocean, where evaporation raises water once more to the heavens so it can fall on earth again as rain. In the same way, human souls follow the World River to the sea, only once more to emerge at its source in order to incarnate once more.
When Spirit and Earth Touch: Customs, Taboos, and Ongons
As I stated earlier, the spirit and physical worlds are not really separated since they touch in many places everywhere. However, there are certain situations where the spirit world and this world touch in dramatic ways that require special notice and are regulated by specific rules of behavior. This can be embodied in a person, such as a shaman, a newborn, or a deceased individual. Physical sites where spirit and earth touch are in sacred sites such as mountains, trees, or oboo, or in a specially devised dwelling place for a spirit called an ongon. Contact with spirits can be beneficial or detrimental depending on the type of spirit involved and its character. It can also present some danger to the well being of a person’s souls because they may be tempted to follow spirits into other worlds.
While contact with a shaman is normally quite safe because his spirits are employed for beneficial purposes, other people with contact with the spirit world can be quite dangerous. Spirit possession or influence can cause illness or insanity, and must be ended quickly. Newborn children and their mothers are sequestered for a certain amount of time following birth, not only to protect the newly entered souls of the child, but also because the entry of the souls through the mother makes her slightly other-worldly and dangerous to other humans. In the same way the household of a person who has died as well as the persons who dispose of the body become temporarily taboo because of their presence at the exit of souls from the world. The name of a dead person may remain taboo for a period of time lasting from a few days to forever. It is believed that the mention of the dead person’s name may call him or her back from the lower world or cause it to stay around. This is dangerous because dead people may try to take the suns souls of the ones they loved.
Spiritually powerful places in nature require respect of the spirits that dwell there. Insults to the spirits can result in their attack on the offending person or his community. On the other hand, honoring the spirits of these places bring good luck and prosperity.
A special site of contact between spirits and the physical world are ongons, specially created houses for spirits. These are beneficial as long as they are treated with honor. Ongons are one of the most important shamanist tools in Mongolia and Siberia, and almost all tribes use them. They come in many different forms; they can be carved out of wood, painted on leather, mounted on a wooden hoop or made out of metal. The materials used to make ongons includes wood, leather, felt, rocks, paper, fur, feathers, and metal. Some ongons are abstract and some resemble dolls. While the ongon may be made by ordinary people they are enlivened by the shaman who calls the spirit to occupy it. Most ongons are occupied by ancestor spirits or animal spirits, but some contain very powerful nature spirits. After being quickened an ongon is honored by being placed in the sacred place of the ger and fed offerings of liquor, blood, milk, or fat. Two of the most important ongons which are found in Mongolian households are Zol Zayaach and Avgaldai. Zol Zayaach is depicted as a male-female pair and is a protector of the household and herds; Avgaldai is a copper mask of the bear ancestor and is occasionally worn by a shaman in the triennial ominan ritual which honors all of the spirits and initiates new shamans. Shamans normally have a large set of ongons which house their helper spirits; in fact the shaman costume itself is an ongon of the shaman’s utha spirit. Special ongons may be created for healing and soul retrieval ceremonies and left with a patient in order to carry on the healing process and protect the patient’s souls. Temporary ongons of wood or grass are sometimes used in rituals to hold a disease spirit which is then released when the ongon is discarded out in nature afterward. Ongons are passed down from generation to generation because the spirit will continue to live in them and neglect of the spirit may make it turn hostile.
The Shaman
Referring to the spirituality of Mongolia and Siberia as shamanism is somewhat misleading, because a shaman is not revered himself but rather respected because of his special relationship with the spirits. Some scholars have taken to calling this traditional religion Tengrism, which is more appropriate because worship is centered on Tenger and the spirits. Everyday religious practices honoring the spirits does not require a shaman; only when his powers are needed to restore balance or heal illness will a shaman be called for assistance. Some tribes have more than one type of shaman, among some groups they are ranked by their power, or they will be differentiated as white or black depending on what spirits they use and where they travel. Among the southernmost Mongolian groups, such as the Dagur shamans work alongside other shamanlike practitioners such as bonesetters and other folk doctors some of whom also have helper spirits. Many groups have only one kind of shaman who is capable of doing the work of white or black shamans as well as folk doctors. For the sake of simplicity this type of shaman will be the model for the description in this paper.
Becoming a Shaman
Shamans are distinguished from other people in that they have a shaman spirit which selects and initiates them. This spirit is known by many names, including utha, and onggor among the Buryat and Dagur. It acts like an extra soul and is a source of power and controls the shaman’s encounters with other spirits, some of which may also become helper spirits. While a shaman may show a proclivity for shamanizing from an early age, the utha (I use the Buryat term for simplicity) will manifest itself suddenly, resulting in mental or physical illness. During the course of the illness the shaman-to-be will have a vision in which the utha will initiate him. Common elements in the vision include travel to the upper world and the dismemberment and reassembly of the shaman’s body so that it will be new and empowered for his work. When the new shaman falls ill, the shaman who will examine him will recognize at once that he has been selected by an utha spirit. At that point if he agrees to become a shaman he can be healed, otherwise he will usually die. The training and initiation which follow his recovery are only a confirmation of the initiation which he experienced in the spirit world.
The duties of a shaman include healing, blessing, protection, hunting magic, and occasionally weather magic. Healing is the most important of these because spirits are the cause of illness. Spirits can also be called to provide protection and improve luck. Hunting magic rituals put the shaman in touch with the animal and nature spirits who provide or withhold game. Weather magic usually involves rainmaking or sending lightning back to the sky, and requires direct contact with Tenger. Some rituals such as the oboo ceremony and ominan ritual last for several days and are meant to promote the welfare of the entire community. Shamans’ work may vary from simple fortunetelling to grand rituals lasting several days. Depending on the difficulty of the task a shaman may invoke his spirits to help him or to actually enter his body when a lot of power is needed. Shamans usually sing, drum and dance during performances.
Shamans use several different tools in their work. Their costume and ongons are actual residences of their helper spirits. A one-sided hand held drum, usually 60 cm or more in diameter is used to drive the singing and dancing which are a part of most ceremonies. After the drum the most important tool of the shaman is the toli, a metallic circular mirror. A shaman will attach many toli to his costume if he can obtain them, but one toli over the chest is most important. A toli acts like armor, deflecting spirit attack, it can reflect light to blind spirits, and is also absorbs energy from the universe to increase the shaman’s power. Most shamans usually also have one or two staffs that represent horses which he rides on spirit journeys. Another tool which is found in many tribes is the dalbuur, a ritual fan which is used to drive out spirits from patients. Other musical instruments may be used by shamans, the jaws harp (aman huur) being the most common. Shamans from some tribes use masks, but the most common one is the bear mask used for the ominan ritual.
Drumming, Hallucinogens, Paths to Ecstasy
Although shamans are noted for going into trance for doing their work, not all rituals require it and the shaman performs many tasks in an ordinary state of consciousness. When an altered state of consciousness is required, however, there are many techniques which boost the shaman into the ecstatic state of mind that allows him to take on the qualities of a spirit and become clairvoyant and capable of spirit travel. Most rituals employ several of these techniques together in order to bring the shaman to ecstasy.
The setting of the ritual is crucial to the effectiveness of a ritual. Shamanizing at night is conducive to achieving the trance state; in fact many spirits are not as effective when called during the day. The people attending the ritual can help the shaman reach a trance state by echoing parts of his song, beating drums, or shouting along with the drumming. Circle dances can raise energy and propel the shaman into the upper world.
The beating of the shaman drum is the most powerful way to induce trance. Scientific studies have shown that repetitive rhythms at certain frequencies can induce a hypnotic state similar to the trance of shamans. Shaman’s drumming, however, does not have a metronome-like steadiness, but rather will slow down or speed up, get louder or softer depending on the state of the shaman’s mind at a given moment. Mongolian and Siberian drums are generally large in diameter and have a deep resonating sound that will vibrate through the shaman’s body, and the drum is frequently held near the face or over the head so that the beat will resonate through the head and upper body with great force.
Intoxicants may be consumed before or during the ritual. Shamans frequently drink alcohol before shamanizing and pause at points during the ritual to smoke tobacco. Juniper, which is mildly hallucinogenic, is used in practically all rituals in Mongolia and in many parts of Siberia. The fumes of juniper will be waved in the face and inhaled, and the air of the ger will become thick with juniper smoke during the ritual. Sacred smoke is believed to raise windhorse and is pleasing to the spirits. A more potent hallucinogen, the muscaria mushroom, has been connected with Siberian and Mongolian shamanism from ancient times. Mushrooms may not always be consumed during shamanist rituals, but shamans may also consume the dried mushrooms on order to achieve ecstasy during times between rituals.
Climbing the toroo tree is another path to ecstasy. In Mongolian the word to go out and to go up are the same word, garah. Chabros has suggested that the connection between those two meanings lies in shamanism. By symbolically ascending the representation of the World Tree the shaman is literally going out of this world into the world of spirit. The toroo tree has nine steps, and as the shaman climbs higher and higher, at the same time singing, the drumming and the encouragements of his audience will bring him to the ecstatic state. Some shamans will show their contact with the spirit world by singing hoomei (overtone or throat singing), which consists of a base note and a whistling overtone note. The overtones represent the contact with the spirit world while remaining physically on earth (represented by the base tone).
Riding the Cosmic Steed
Shaman trance entails travel on the spirit plane of existence, and the shaman usually experiences this as either flying or riding an animal which will carry him to the place in the three world where he is needed. These spirit journeys may take the shaman to places in this world, or may require him to travel to the upper or lower worlds. Lower world journeys are usually only required in cases of soul retrieval or bringing a dead person’s soul to Erleg Khan. Most other rituals will require the shaman to travel on earth or ascend to the upper world. Lower world journeys are the most difficult, and only the strongest shamans can go there safely.
Spirit journeys usually start by moving upward, and even when going to the lower world the trip will start with flight, frequently out through the smoke hole of the ger. The shaman may take the from of a bird or ride a flying supernatural mount. During the course of the journey the shaman may change form several times, at one point being a bird, at the next in human form, and then taking on the form of a bear, depending on which spirits are guiding him or entering his body. The shaman may utter animal sounds as he goes through these transformations. He may appear to be unconscious during the journey, or may remain conscious but in a trancelike state and will be capable of moving around, dancing, or even telling his audience about what he sees. While in this state of mind the shaman is capable of acting completely out of character and can perform dangerous feats that he would be incapable of doing otherwise such as stabbing himself or walking on fire. Most Altaic shamans speak of passing nine landmarks (olohs) during a journey regardless of which world they are traveling in.
The mount which a shaman rides during his travels is usually a flying horse or deer. These are physically represented by the one or two shaman staffs which he keeps handy during the ritual, or may be represented by his drum. Before a ritual starts the drum is warmed by the fire, this is called amiluulah, making the drum come alive. The drum not only drives the vision by its steady beat, but is literally the steed upon which the shaman rides to his destination. Upon returning from his journey the shaman will cough or belch to expel the spirits which were riding with him inside his body. He then sings in praise of his spirit helpers before completing the ritual.
Healing and Causes of Illness
The root cause of all illness is imbalance of a person’s souls caused either by intrusions by foreign spirits or outright soul loss caused by spiritual or physical trauma. Shamans are aware of the fact that the physical symptoms of illness must also be treated, and herbal medicines are administered by shamans in addition to the spiritual healing. The spiritual aspect of the illness however is important because the physical symptoms alone are not the true problem. Spirit intrusion and soul loss suppress the body’s natural capability to heal itself, so unless the spiritual ailment is cured the physical disease will never truly be healed.
Spirits that cause illness may be chotgor, hostile ancestor spirits, burhan, or evil shamans. Chotgor, ancestor spirits, and other less powerful nature spirits can often be cured by singing or waving of the dalbuur over the patient. The disease spirit may also be removed by sucking or pulling gestures that draw it out of the body. More powerful spirits or hostile shamans will require going into trance. Burhan are the most powerful and may need sacrifices to make them go away. The shaman may use knives, a red hot iron, or a bow and arrow to scare the disease spirit or blind it with reflected light from his mirror. An ongon or the toli may be used to catch a spirit in order to keep it from jumping into another person when it is expelled, or the shaman may temporarily absorb it into his body. In such cases the shaman travels part of the way to the lower world and then bids the spirit to return to the lower world and leave the patient alone. If a temporary ongon is used it is then thrown away in a natural place or destroyed so that the spirit will not return to it.
Some healings actually involve spiritual warfare. A shaman may physically struggle violently with a stubborn spirit, even using weapons, and his spirits fight alongside him to subdue or drive away the intruder. A special nature spirit may be called specifically for the healing and housed in an ongon that will protect the patient. When a hostile shaman is causing illness an ongoing war between the local clan shaman and that of an enemy clan may ensue. These spiritual battles may last for long periods of time and may result in the death of the weaker shaman. Shamans who routinely aggressively attack other people may lose their ability to heal, however, and such shamans lose their status within the community or are even killed
Soul retrieval is usually necessary in cases of severe and chronic illness. The absence of the ami or suns souls make it practically impossible for a body to function normally. The ami soul remains in this world and can generally be easily found and returned to the body by a shaman. The suns may linger near the body, but if it goes on to the lower world a difficult and dangerous journey by the shaman is required to return it. When a lost soul is found it is placed in the shaman’s ear or inside the drum for the return trip, then shaken out back into the body. When a spirit has stolen a soul the shaman may need to fight it to let it go. Soul retrievals are the most dangerous work for shamans because they have to travel outside their bodies for long distances and they are vulnerable to attack and soul loss themselves during the journey.
An Overview of the Model of Mongolian Shamanism
In the previous few sections I have presented the basic ideas of Mongolian shamanism. The essential characteristics can be summarized as follows
* Living beings live happy productive lives by promoting balance in the world and observing the customs of respect toward Father Heaven, Mother Earth, and the spirits
* The world is a circle oriented toward the south, with Father Heaven above, Mother Earth below; the right side is male and the left female
* The sacredness of fire
* One’s personal power can be increased by living a yostoi life and revering the spirits and living things
* The presence and protection of the spirits of the ancestors
* Humanlike sentient spirits in the heavens, animals, trees, mountains, and other natural features
* Power and totem animals
* Human beings are a combination of 3 souls in addition to the physical body
* There are three worlds, the lower, middle, and upper worlds connected by the World River and the World Tree
* Shamans have a special helper spirit that initiates him and empowers him to restore balance to the world
* The use of the drum, ongons, shaman staffs, dalbuur, sacred smoke, hallucinogens
* Shamans’ chief duties include healing, invoking protection, blessing, divination, hunting magic and weather magic
* The causes of illness are due to spiritual forces disrupting a person’s souls by either intruding into the body or stealing one of the souls. This requires expulsion of the foreign spirit or soul retrieval
The First Shamans
Long ago, when Ulgen Tenger created mankind people were very happy and lived without any trouble or disease. His brother, Erleg Khan, chief of the spirits of the eastern direction, was unhappy with this situation, and sent disease and unhappiness to human beings. Suddenly people started becoming ill and dying, and Ulgen and the spirits of the western direction were troubled and met together in the Pleiades to discuss how to correct this problem. They decided to send Eagle to be a shaman to mankind.
When Eagle came down to earth from the upper world, he tried to communicate with humans and tell them that he had come to be a shaman for them. But because he had originally been created by the spirits of the eastern direction he did not know the human language, and, discouraged, he returned to the upper world and told the western sky spirits he could not help humankind. They told him to return, but this time to find a woman, mate with her, and the child would be the first shaman. So Eagle, flying back to earth, saw a beautiful woman sleeping under a tree, mated with her, and then her son became the first shaman. Even today shamans remember the flight of the eagle in their dances and fly up to heaven when they shamanize.
In those days, shamans were very powerful, and could travel about the earth with the speed of lightning, and perform the most amazing tasks. One of the most famous shamans was Hara-Gyrgen, and Ulgen Tenger, seeing the arrogance of this shaman, decided to test him. Tenger took away the soul of the daughter from Hara-Gyrgen's clan, and the girl became like dead. When the shaman arrived he saw at once that the girl's soul was lost, and he shamanized and flew up to the upper world. He came to the dwelling place of Tenger and saw that the girl's soul was in a bottle and Tenger was holding it closed with his thumb. Hara-Gyrgen turned himself into a bee, stung Tenger on the cheek, and when Tenger dropped the bottle to slap the bee, the shaman grabbed the girl's soul and flew back to the earth. Ulgen Tenger was angry and punished the shaman for being too powerful. He made Hara-Gyrgen jump up and down on a mountain forever, and when the mountain has worn down shamans will no longer have their powers. After hundreds of years of jumping on the mountain, Hara-Gyrgen is becoming tired, so now shamans are not as strong as they used to be, and people no longer understand many of the shaman songs.
End Note:
The stream of Time, irresistible, ever moving, carries off and bears away all things that come to birth and plunges them into utter darkness, both deeds of no account and deeds which are mighty and worthy of commemoration; as the playwright [Sophocles] says, it "brings to light that which was unseen and shrouds from us that which was manifest." Nevertheless, the science of History is a great bulwark against the stream of Time; in a way it checks this irresistible flood, it holds in a tight grasp whatever it can seize floating on the surface and will not allow it to slip away into the depths of Oblivion.
